An Outline of the Growth of Various
Forms in Kashmiri Literature
Prof. Mohiud-Din Hajini
Epics
The classical Mahabharata was probably rendered
into Kashmiri during Sultan Zain-ul-Aabideen's time; the mutilated manuscript in
the Research Department is perhaps its only extant copy. Its translator is
nowhere traceable in the text, and its diction is mostly outdated. Bhatavtar's
reported translation of some parts or the whole of Firdousi's Shahnama during
this period has never been located anywhere. After the downfall of the Shahmiri
and the Chak dynasties, literary interest in epics continued declining till
Prakash Kaul of Kurigam retold Ramayana in Kashmiri probably in 1847 A.D. There
were other abridged versions of the Ramayana, the latest one being Nila Kanth
Sharma's in the present century. From amongst the 19th century epic poets Moulvi
Siddiqullah of Hajin gave us the first version of Nizami's famous Sikendernama,
Hamidullah of Anantnag is the only Kashmiri poet in the 19th century who wrote
his Akbarnama (Afghan wars with the British) in Persian, and Wahhab Parey of
Hajin, the greatest epic-poet in Kashmiri, rendered it into Kashmiri when he was
a budding poet.
Later Wahhab retold Fridousi's entire Shahnama in 23491 verses, including
Khilafatnama (i.e. Muslim conquest of Iran) in 6666 verses. It was on Wahhab's
initiative that Amir Shah of Kreri brought from the voluminous Kashmiri version
of Khajoo's Saamnama. Lachman Kaul Bulbul's abbreviated Saamnama (1874 A.D.), is
purer in diction though not superior in content to Amir Shah's. Amir Shah's
another noteworthy epic is Khawarnama on the military exploits of the fourth
Orthodox Caliph, Hazrat-e-Ali. He was followed by Muzaffar Shah who wrote
Jang-e-Mukhtar depicting the horrible vengeance wrought on Ummayed troops, who
were reported to have killed Imam-e-Hussain, the martyr. All these classical
renderings from Persian, stand as milestones in our epic literature, providing a
pattern for a host of junior poets in epics; hence we see as for instance, Ali
Shah of Haril (d 1932) writing dozens of Razmia (Combat) works, mostly covering
early Muslim History, till Gh Mohammad, Hanafi (d 1937) retold the Qissa-e-Amir
Hamza of Allama Faizi into persianized Kashmiri. By this time, almost all Arab
battles fought and won during the time of the Prophet Mohammad (Peace be upon
him) and his orthodox Caliphs, were rendered into Kashmiri verse, mostly
dominated by Persian not only in the style and metre, but in phrases, epithets,
conceit and hyperbole. It is not a strange experience in the 19th Century and
early 20th Century, that sometimes small combat-epics are woven round a casual
reference in Muslim History and tactfully-developed to a glorious climax. With
the advancements in education, poets seem to have completely disengaged
themselves from epic literature and that is why no epic in the Mathnavi form
appeared since1937.
Romanticism
With rare exceptions where the poet follows the text strictly in accordance
with the Muslim History, the majority of epics are romantic in the sense that
each one "embodies the life and adventure of some hero of Chivalry, or
belongs in matter and form, to the age of knighthood." Similarly each one
has a tinge of fictitious narrative of which the scene and incidents are very
remote from the ordinary life, and often woven into wanton exaggeration and
picturesque falsehood, "the recognised ingredients of romance both in epics
and in aesthetic poetry."
The influence of Persian often creeps in intensely in subjective moods that
sublimate into romantic flashes first under a veiled and allegorical
sensuousness and later into sublime ejaculations. Habba Khatoon, Arnimal, Rasool
Mir and Mahjoor respectively stand as milestones in the romantic poetry of 16th,
18th, 19th and 20th centuries. To them every thing in the romantic environment
of Kashmir "particularly flower, meadow glen, glade and even a thistle
appeared both bewildering and soothing" and above all "in rapturous
communication with the poets sub-conscious". This tradition was carried
further by Wahhab in Ghazals and by Haquani, Haji Miskeen, Hairat and Lassa Khan
in their Bazmia (love), mathnavi, but the field of the first three was vast
enough to be limited to pure romanticism. In fact, the prolific legacy of
Mathnavi literature during the19th and early 20th century is potential enough to
supply sublime models of style and theme for a long time to come. Gulrez,
Gulnoor Rana-Zega, Sherin Khusroo, Wamiq Azra, Gul-e-Bakawuli, Mumtaz-e Benazir,
even though only Kashmiri versions of foreign romantic works, do come upto the
standard regarding diction, plot, and pitch in the style. As for romantic songs
and ghazals during the last and the present centuries, it will require a
complete discourse to cover the topic. Even though no noteworthy romance in
Mathnavi form has appeared after 1947, Rahi, Kamil, Nawaz, Rasa Javidani, Firaq
and Azim have enriched Kashmiri with the finest prices in pure romanticism, in a
number of non-mathnavi poems. This group has unconsciously given a lead to the
budding poets in modern romanticism i.e. Nazir, Rasheed Nazki, Kanwal, Raaz,
Manzoor Hashami, Saqi and Ahsan.
Lyrics
Lyrics originally meant something pertaining to lyre i.e. to be sung : later
it came to mean a poem divided into stanzas or strophes, and directly expressing
the poet's thoughts or sentiments. In Kashmiri we have "Lol-lyrics" a
phrase coined by Prof. J. L. Kaul, Lol implying an untranslatable complex of
love, longing and tugging at the heart. "This form has a long history and
tradition in Kashmir. It is rarely more than six to ten lines, including the
refrain, and often converges on a single mood." Habba Khatoon initiated its
form "Watsun' in which each three line stanza is followed by a refrain (Voje).
In due course all songs such as Chakri, Rov and Lila songs adopted "Watsun"
as its form. We owe its preservation to the professional singers of the Sufiana
Kalam (mystic poetry).
It is a thing of music and with its end-rhymes, medial rhymes and
ever-recurring refrains, its alliterations, and assonance that come naturally as
the very stuff of the language, which has high proportion of vowels and
semi-vowels to its consonants and in which aspirates, gutterals and consonants
are rare. Its appeal is directly to the emotions of the listener.
In classical lyrics, such as those of Habba Khatoon and Arnimal "there
were few allusions and fewer ornaments; they had directness, simplicity, and a
tender piognancy of feeling; whereas the latter imitations are more and more
sophisticated. The earlier lyrics are "charged with the intensity of
feeling that often concentrates on the yearning for the beloved "that may
resemble any human being from Yusuf Shah Chak (the exiled and dethroned lover of
Habba Khatoon) the Biblical Yusuf (Joseph) the ideal of beauty in all oriental
lore. As for the latter period i.e. from Mahmood Gami onwards, our lyrics
clearly fall into two groups : Rasool Miri Maqbool Shah, Krishan Razdan (1925)
and Mahjoor sing of Mahammadan type of beloved; Nema Sahib (1880), Swach Kral
and Aziz Darvish 1890 wrote lyrics to soothe the drooping soul of the complex
ridden Kashmiri who always pines for the exhilirating rapture in which he would
not have to sing every now and then, with Mahjoor "winter will pass off,
and ice will melt away, yes the spring shall come again."
Prof. J. K. Kaul's "Lol Lyrics", published in 1945 in Roman script
of Kashmiri with an accurate English translation, is the pioneer attempt in
compilation of scattered lore of our lyrics.
Folk Lore
Long after A. Stein and J.H. Knowle first introduced some salients facts of
Kashmiri folklore particularly folk-tales for the English-knowing world. The
local authors, and subsequently the J & K Cultural Academy felt that this
branch of literature also is worth exploration of literary books like
Bazum-e-Adab and Progressive Writers Congress also provided the spoken work, and
within 20 years the elementary attempts at discovering the folklore revealed a
vast field to researchers. Anthologies of folk-tales such as Bhrachy-Kathu
(Publication poems Government of India) are the first successful compilation in
Kashmiri prose. The versified part can now be classified as under :
(a) These include "nursery rhymes, cradle songs, harvest song and even
the boatman's chanty, riddles or even meaningless snatches" (J.L. Kaul).
This genre varies in content and meaning both with the growth of age and change
in situation. It is only after 1947 that this otherwise anonymous stock, is
classified as a distinct type, and we now have for example, Childrens' Books
which for instance include :
Poshamal by S. N. Sadhu, Mukahtahar by Naji Manawar and Rahbar,
Baalmarayo by S. N. Haleem, and Don Quirti by Prof. Sadhu. For the
grown-up, we have :
(b) Folk Songs : It is usually intensely subjective; its forms are
varied and simple, mostly a four line stanza with a refrain intended to suit
numerous situations in life e.g. to supplicate spiritual patronage for the baby
cheer up a naughty youngster, buck up a bored artisan, or lighten the burden of
a housewife, a weader or a coolie dragging on a loaded cart. (Kaul). The five
commendable volumes of Kashmiri Luka Bath (1965-71) one compiled jointly by Naji
and Saqi and the other four by Saqi alone, comprise the best specimen of almost
all offshoots of folksongs.
(c) Vanvun : and Rov : The two forms are perhaps the oldest art
forms of the folk song exclusively "reserved for the fair-sex, vanavun is a
"must" for all ceremonies, such as Id, Shivratri, and the month of
Ramzan etc. Vanavun is always lighter in the tune, varied in form, and centred
round a particular occasion as for instance, heralding a prosperous future for
the baby : While Rov has its own peculiarities. Prof. Kaul has graphically
depicted it when he wrote the country lasses and the middle aged dames come out
(always after the sunset), divide themselves into two interlocked rows their
arms over one another's shoulders and begin the swing like movement of the whole
file, one row advancing and other receding both keeping tunes to the dance tune
of the Rov. These songs have redieved the tedinus of the life of the illiterate
women-folk, who, finds in them a sincere echo of their emotions.
In Rov alone the fair sex get a free chance to ejaculate their inner urges
and suppressed aspirations. Gh. Mustafa Manzoor (b. 1906) and Gh. Hassan Driver
(b. 1907) have added a lot to this otherwise anonymous branch of the folksong.
(d) Daastan Shayeri : A number of long classical tales are inter-woven
in songs appropriate to the various situations in the plot ; these songs form a
distinct genre called Dasstan Shayeri. Some of the tales are purely native such
as Akanandun, Jehaar and Habba Khatoon, while some others are of foreign origin
e.g. Laila Majnoon, Haroon Rashed Gul-e-Sonaber etc. Except Kabir Mir's Zen-e-Mazoor
(Wood cutter) all the pieces are anonymous, and at the mercy of the professional
recited (Kathagor), whose love for the old and even obsolete idiom and vocables
can well be illustrated by one example of Mohammad Khaar (d. 1968) of Shahgund,
who could at the age of about ninety recite exactly and faithfully 150 verses of
Bhadur Ganais' Aknandun transmitted traditonallly more than 300 years back. In
view of the diminishing number of narrations, there is every apprehension of the
loss of major portion of this "Poetry", unless arrangements are made
for its proper compilation.
Devotional Poetry
Lal Ded and Shiekh Noor-Ud-Din Noorani are the first two Kashmiri poets whose
major part of the non-mystic poetry falls under this form; of course, with one
difference; Lal Ded basing her poetry on Shaivite faith, and Nund Rishi on
Islamic ethics. Both abhored hypocrisy and ritualism in various creeds and
exhorted listeners to seek purity of mind and good conduct irrespective of their
creed. Numerous saints and disciples in the Rishi order and Shaivite cult
carried the message on with the result that almost every poet deemed his duty to
bequeath to posterity some devotional songs in various art forms. In the entire
gamut, we notice one major difference : non-muslim poets using over-sanskritized
and muslims over-persianized diction of style. From Sahab Kaul (d. 1676) to
Krishna Razdan, (d. 1925) on the one hand and from Habibullah Nowshahri (1617)
to Haqqunani (d. 1928) on the other hand, a long chain of poets have followed
this trade both in the language used, and in the religious objectives
propounded. There are some exceptions to the rule with regard to the theme.
Muslim poets writing in the style of Shastra e.g. Rahiem Sahib, Shamus Faqiur or
Ahed Zargar, and Hindu poets singing eulogues to the Holy Prophet e.g. Sat Ram
(d. 1934) or Anand Kaul (d. 1939) but these are not too many, though their
attempts do 'indicate the spirit of reverance for faiths other than ones own.'
Devotional poetry has, branched in to numerous fields; hymns (Munajaat) to
God, eulogues (Naat) to the Prophet, panegyrics (Manquabat) to saints, in the
Muslim group; and 'lilas', 'Bhajans' and reformative poems in the Hindu group.
The sources of the muse also vary correspondingly : Muslims derive their
material from the Holy Quran, Traditions of the Prophet, Islamic History,
Theology and Mysticism : Hindus basing their verse on mythology, Bhagvat Geeta,
Puranas, Krishana Bhakti, Rama Bhakti and Trika Shastra.
Taayis (d. 1914), Sana-ullah Kreri (d. 1875), Nadim (d. 1911), Jaid (d. 1908)
have utilized almost their entire crudation to Naat and Munajaat; Lakhman Joo
Bullbul (d. 1884) and Krishna Razdan (1925) wrote 'lilas', 'Bhajans and
reformation poems. Several others who have contributed a lot to other forms,
have also excelled in their religious verse e.g. Molvi Siddiquallah of Hajin
(1900), Hassan Shah (1898) and Haquani (1928), Prakash Ram (1898). Paramanand
(d. 1879) and Nil Kanth Sharma (d. 1969) come under this class. With this solid
and mature background, the traditions of this theme continue more systematically
and vigorously amongst the contemporary poets. Shamus-ud-Din Ghamgeen (b. 1910),
Fazil (b. 1914), Tanha (d. 1968) in general and Ghulam Mushtaq (b. 1934) and
Arshique, Zakhmi have produced excellant pieces in religious verse, during the
past two decades.
Mysticism
Down from Sati Kanth (13th century), to the contemporary Ahad Zargar (b.
1908) we have a trailing galaxy of mystic poets in every century, some like Lal
Ded (d. 1400), Nund Rishi (d. 1438), Paramanand (d. 1879), Shamus Faquer (d.
1905) and Zinda Kaul (d. 1965) pioneers both in style and message, while a good
number of them, though not all sublime in verse, yet mature enough in mystical
vision e.g. Rahiem Sahib (d. 1869), Swach Kral (d. 1891), and Rahman Dar (d.
1900). It is true that in almost every period, most of our mystics' such as Kh.
Habibullah Nowshawri (d. 1617), Roupa Bhawani (d. 1721), Aziz Darvish Shah
Gafoor (d. 18th century) and Ahmad Batwari (d. 1920) could rarely rise alone the
pantheistic school of mysticism, and some others were exclusively concerned with
their "trance ejaculations than with poetic canons e.g Momin Shah (early
19th century), Wahhab Khaar (d. 1912) and Asad Parey (d. 1916), it will
nevertheless be too bold, even audacious, to evaluate their contribution to
mystic verse with a para or so. The ever accummaling legacy in mystic poetry is
so fecundite in content and so diversifying in form as to attract any critic to
pick up numerous noteworthy traits, wise saws and pithy sayings, didactic
quidities and intuitive flashes even ,in the otherwise obscure mystics all
converging on 'discovery of the innerself'.
Before the advent of Islam, Kashmir was the nerve-centre of Trika and
Budhistic philosophies enunciating some beliefs and practices objectively akin
to the Iranic mysticism of Muslim Saints; this affinity in course of time,
flowered into an harmonious synthesis wherein the Muslim Muraquaba appeared
identifiable with the Budhistic dhayana and Brahamic Samadhi in the mystic
discipline. Far from Rahim Sahib to Master Zinda Kaul (d 1985) in the higher
rank and from Mirza Kak to Samad Mir in the normal rank of mystics, we can glean
numerous verses identical in appeal and conviction though widely varying in form
and direction But this cultural link, though noteworthy cannot be stretched too
far to identify the two major branches provided by the indigenous and Iranian
thought. Thus the Krishna Bhakti school represented by Paramanand and Ram Bhakti
school represented by Nila Kanth Sharma first round the distinct Hindu concepts,
while the Kubravi, Subhrawadi, Rishi, Chisti and Quadri schools of Muslim
mystics with very rare exceptions, trace back their genesis to Islamic tenets
alone. Hence the difference in their final objective in the process of self
realization, "Unlike the Nirvana" says R. A. Nicholson which is merely
the cessation of individuality, "fana", the passing away of the Sufi
from his phenomenal existence involves "baqa", the continuance of his
real existence. (The mystic of Islam 1911 11 page 149). One aspect of all mystic
poets, without distinction of creed is patent : all preached catho-licism,
renunciation of things worldly, tolerance, unitive state of the soul. But the
keynotes to mysticism i.e. light, knowledge and love, or the ultima Thule of the
'heaven ward journey' i.e. absorbing into one Real Being all these are so
distinctly 'comprehended' and presented that with no stretch of imagination can
any one identify, say, the Ras Lila concept of Paramanand with the Hal-al-Haque
of Haqquani. The Muslim Mystics, like their Iranian predecessors in faith
distinguish these organs of the spiritual comunications, the heart (Qab) which
knows God, the spirit (Ruh) which loves Him, and the inner ground of the soul (Sirr)
which contemplates Him (Nicholson). In this self realizing process, we come
across the 'acquired stages' (Maquamaat), and directly-bestowed states (Ahwal),
so repeatedly that the subject has now assumed a rigidly coventional scope,
wherein a good number of them have largely, borrowed from persian not only ideas
but the epithets and phrasses often state enough and also the imagery, symbolism
and conceit (Kaul). Such a blind mimicry has, no doubt reduced most of the
thought-content in Kashmiri mystic poetry sentimental platituduous, morbidly
gloomy and obscure (Kaul)
M. A. Kamil's 3-Volume Kashmir Suti Shavic is the first anthology of our
mystic poetry providing representative prices of almost all the eminent mystic
poets, and touching major issues on the subject in its exhaustive Introduction.
Humour
Even though Kashmiri literature is deficient in humour when compared to other
languages, its scattered stock is not hallow in content nor immature in spirit.
Besides Ladishah and Banda Jashan (the former entertaining the country-folk, and
the latter providing with in open air theatrical performance), a Kashmiri is
justly noted for his ready wit, retort, repartee, pun and play upon words come
naturally to his tongue. (J.L. Kaul). Maqbool Shah had given a start to
caricaturing in verse, a farmer and a Pir, but latter poets added a lot to
humorous verse. Pahelnama, Muqdam-nama, Malnama etc. Madha Deek of Srinagar in
quatrains, and Wahhab Sahib of Sangrama in long poems spouted forth venomous
lampoon streaked with humour. Abdul Ahad Nadim in his casual moods and Khezir
Magrebi (b. 1921), Sayer (b. 1915) and Parwaz (b. 1943) as a born caricaturists
have verified ridiculous situations in most telling colloquial idiom. G. R.
Santosh has begun the game in prose.
The first weekly paper Guash (1940) and later G.N. Khayal's Weekly 'Wattan,
(1964) had reserved a column for humour, while Noor Mohammad Book-Seller
published the Asunta-Gindun, and Dilsoze immature but humorous skits before the
fifties.
It was left for M. A. Kamil to give us the most remarkable compilation in
Kashmiri humour in his "Asun Traye", published by the Cultural Academy
in 1967. As for the comic characterization or radio features, Pushkar Bhan
stands unparalleled where he 'utilizes humour and wit with utmost dexterity and
touching verse'. (Kaul)
Shahr Ashobe
(c) When a Kashmiri took to new fashions that misplaced him in society, or to
new values repugnant to the common belief, the poet came with his satire in
Shahr Ashobe. This genre includes satire on corrupt officials, bamboozling
priests, or even on natural calamities. It proved to be a literary, weapon and
its object had to feel the sting for a pretty long time. Mehada Deek, Nazim,
Nadim and Wahhab have left behind some serious pieces centring round either
humorous caricaturing or stinging lampoon.
Ladishah
It is the typical name for a folk ballad pungently comic-cum-satiric in text,
and historically speaking a sullen reaction of a suppressed nation against
tyranny, vis major or deliberate 'mismanagement' of mundane affairs. It is
distinguished for its 'homely metaphor, and picturesque potrayal of ridiculous
situation, in which a common Kashmiri finds himself in an autocratic regime';
and it has proved to be a source of mental consolation for the enslaved folk
during the centuries past. Major portion of this form is lost in verbal
transmission by the illiterate bards, nevertheless we still possess some very
fine pieces in the Ladishah. Hakeem Habibullah (1905), Munawer Shah of Kulsoo
(d. 1925), and Lala Lakhman (d. 1947), are recognized masters of this form,
while Noor Mohammad Roshan and Mohd. Ali Kanwal were their contemporary
prototypes, who have added both vigour and colour to this form of the folk
ballad.
Elegy (Marthiya or Marsiya)
Its origin is inferred in the Chak period (1561-86), and it continued
expanding and developing till late in the 19th century. But it remained as if
'reserved with a group of professional reciters' called 'Zakirs' who made
business of it every year, particularly during the first ten days of Moharrum,
the first Hijri month of the year, Zakirs stuck to the rule not to let the
elegies be published, for their services would then be dispensed with. That is
why we possess only two collections of the Marsiya, one printed in Lahore before
1920, and the other (OSH-ta-Aab) in Srinagar in 1955, though there are
innumerable collections with the miserly Zakirs. Elegy in Kashmiri is written in
long show solemnity, appropriate to the tragedy at Karbula. These display
learning and rich allusiveness in their "bombastic or sentimental
diction".
Although the language is often over-persianized yet some of th classical ones
retain several terms that have now been either replaced or forgotten. Elegy in
Mathnavi form can be read in Syed Amir Shah's Jang-e-Iman-e-Hanafiya A. G.
Ashique's and Ghulam Hassan Darsis two mathnavi's under the same name i.e.
Rouzat-u-Shuhda. A good number of classical Elegy writers preferred to die
unsung e.g Khwaja Husain Mir Kh. Dayim, Hakeem Abdullah, Kh. Baquir, Mirza Abul
Qasim, Kh. Safdar and Ahmad Ali Ghazi. Elegy in the conventional form gained
full momention in the 19th century when Hakeem Azeem (d. 1852), Mohud Yusuf (d.
1885), Mustafa Ali (d. 1896), Munshi Mohd Ali (d. 1902) and Hakeem Habibullah
(d. 1905) added new dimensions to this form. From amongst the 20th century poets
who have made a name we find Hakeem Hussain Ali (d. 1916), Hakeem Gh. Rasool (d.
1930), Munshi Mohd. Abbas (d. 1945) and the contemporary Munshi Mohd. Sadique
all enriching the form with new-ideas studded on the classical theme.
Quatrains (Rubaiyat) and Couplets (Qitaat)
Before Mirza Arif (b. 1910) only a few poets of eminent rank like Wahhab
wrote quatrains, while the majority abstained from experimenting it because of
its rigid rules of prosody. Mirza Arif made it his forte, and, in effect, gave a
lead to the younger generation, though, it must be admitted, major portion of
modern tetrastich verse does not follow the classical 'Hazj' metre. Even Mirza
Arif himself and Khayyal, while translating the celebrated Umar Khayyam could
not follow the original in the metre. Thus the bulk of modern "four
line" stanzas can technically be classed as Du-Baitee" or couplets
akin to quatrain only in the rhyme-scheme of 'a a b a'.
Following Mirza Arif, G.R. Azad and Nawaz have added a lot to both the forms.
G.R. Nazki's Namroodnama and G R. Azad's Kahkashan are the two noteworthy works
hitherto published in Qitaat and Rubaiyat both revealing precision, as regards
adroit phrase and economy of style are concerned.
Free Verse and Blank Verse
There are some remnants of both of these forms in our elegy, but the polish
and vigour injected in these by the progressive writers after 1947, unfold
altogether a new turn particularly towards a modernity in outlook, theme and
diction. Despite the tradition, its opposition, it has become a fashin with the
majority of younger poets to start with the free verseo free from all cannons of
prosody but the Blank Verse is not as easy a job for even the mature group.
Nadim, Rahi and Kamil are the masters of technique in both of the forms, while
Firaq, Santosh and Roshan have also the right to be included in the harbingers
of the new trend.
As for the younger group, it is very difficult to make a choice from the host
whose merit in other forms has already been acknowledged. Sajood Sailani, Gauhar,
M. Nirash, Ajir Betaab, Massarar, Shahid Badgami, Farhad, Saadi, Majboor Rusul
Pampur, Manjoor, Hashmi, Tanha Nizami and Reh, appear promising enough in free
verse, and to an appreciable extent, in Blank Verse as well. Unfortunately all
their works have remained uncompiled till now.
Prose
Prose writing has systematically begun from 1917 onwards when most of the
intellectuals and men of letters collectively felt an urge to enrich Kashmiri
not only in pure literature alone but in work on technical subjects as well.
Various organizations sprang up to co-ordinate the literary output (in prose and
poetry) in their 'official' Journals; but the Journals proved too limited for
literary works of note. Nor was there any regular agency prepared to undertake
publication of books without, as was the tradition till then, grabbing the
copyright. With this environment, 'not even a quarter of what has been written
has been printed, and even a considerable part of what has been printed, is to
be gleaned from pages of magazines, now defunct.' (Prof. Kaul). Hence numerous
notable works e.g. Pants Auyeen (Constitution) by Prof. Fazili; Aadam Mor
(Anatomy) by Mirza Arif; Ilm-e-Mayushat (Sociology) by Prof. Soze, still await
publication.
It was only in the late fiftees that the Cultural Academy (Kashmir), and to
some extent, the Sahitya Akademi (Delhi) came to the rescue of local writers.
The individuals maiden attempts in prose-during the past two decades proved
outstanding enough to win over the Sahitya Akademi and Cultural Academy Awards.
Sahitya Akademi Award Winning Works
1. Sat-Sangar (Short Stories),
by Akhtar Mohy-ud-Din 1958.
2. Kashre Zabane-hund Illaquawad Phaira (Linguistics).
by A.K. Tak 1968.
3. Maqualaat (Critical Discourses),
by Prof. Mohy-ud-Din Hajini 1970.
Cultural Academy Award Winning Works
(a) Ist Prize :
1. Kashre Nasrech Kitab (A Book of Prose in Kashmiri)
by Prof. Mohy-ud-Din Hajini 1962.
2. Kashre, Adabech Tawarikh (A History of Kashmiri Literature), by A.K.
Rahbar 1966.
3. Kashre-Zaban-Hund-Illaquawad Phaira by A.K. Tak 1969.
(b) 2nd Prize Winning Works :
1. Baal Marayo (Short Stories), Bansi Nirdosh 1962.
2. Losmete Tarkh (Short Stories), Sofi Gh. Mohd. 1964.
3. Mujrim (Novel) Gh. Nabi Gauhar 1970.
4. Sayasatech Paar-e-Zan (Political Science) Prof. Fazali 1970.
It appears surprising how within so short a period, Kashmiri prose branched
off to dry fields with full exuberance e.g. Sargam (3 Vol :) on musical
notations, by S Abdul Aziz, Bagh-e-Arooz on Prosody by Khezit Magerebi. On the
one hand, the basic books on physical sciences for laymen, such as Wutsa
Prang by Prof. Sadhu . Tajruba by A.M. Wani and Scienasok Rang by
Publications Division (Delhi) gave a fillip to the budding writers in the
technical subjects, while on the other hand, Travelogues like Cheenok Safar by
Mirza Arif, and Slavamir by Akhtar Mohy-ud-Din opened up new vistas for widening
the scope of prose. Besides, direct translations of Classical works in foreign
languages added not only much needed variety but depth and richness to the 30
years old prose. Amongst these may be included Gorky's Mother (Russian)
by A.M. Lone, Rahnuma's Pyamber (Persian) by Dr. S. Ahmad, Aristotle's Poetics
(Greek) by G.N. Khayal, Vethe-Hend-e-Mallar (Sanskrit) by Prof. Sadhu, Alif
Laila (Arabic) by Prof. Mohy-ud-Din Hajini ....
As for pure prose, short story has become the forte about 50 per cent
writers, though the works of even some of the mature authors such as Noor Shah,
Deepak Kaul, Gh. Nabi Baba, Prof. H. K. Kaul, G.R. Santosh and H. Bharati are
yet scattered in various journals only. Kathe-Manza Kath by Amin Kamil, Also by
Taj Begum, Adam Chhu Yethy Badnaam by Bansi Nirdosh, Zitni-Zool by Dr. Raina
have been hailed by critics as successful experiments in this form of course,
besides, the award-winning creative works, referred to above. Even collections
like Prof. Sadhu's Qisas or A.K. Rahbar's Tabarukh are not below
the standard.
Novel
It must be frankly admitted that Kashmiri is deficient in novels; only two
novels, Akhtar's Dod Dag (1963) and Gauhar's Mujrim (1969) can be
adjudged as coming upto the mark. The notable translation of foreign novels
include George Gorky's 'Mother' by A.M. Lone, Prem Chand's Godan by
Roshan and Tagore's Chokher Bali by Prof. P.N. Pushp.
Like novels, the novelette also is in its infancy-stage. Journals, Soun Adab,
Sheeraza, Koshur Adab and Nayb have recently begun drawing writers towards this
branch of prose, though, in effect they appear better in essays than in the
novelette.
Ctiticism
Till 1947, the famous poet Abdul Ahad Azad alone had the cheek to criticize a
poet in a dispassionate manner and from amongst the Journals the Pratap Magazine
alone would come to publish critical comments on celebrated poets even of
Mahjoor's stature; otherwise the general tradition of criticism was confined to
either hurling a satire upon or parodying a verse of a poet, and then declaring
a ceasefire between the two men of letters. Within the first decade we saw
Professors Kaul, Hajini, Pushp, Rahi and Firaq, and the celebrated poets Nadim,
Kamil and Arif, chiseling the taste and norms of literature in prose and poetry.
Radio Kashmir also contributed a lot in its regular programmes on poets,
prose-writers and their works. Once the rationale was provided in criticism,
literary and cultural organizations at District and Tehsil levels began
evaluating the critical canons in the East and in the West both of classical and
modern ages. Almost all Collegs and Higher Secondary Schools have now assigned a
permanent section in their magazines for criticism of Kashmiri literature. M. Y.
Teng, Faroque Nazki, S. N. Zutshi, Saqi, Lone, Rahbar and Khayal have also aded
a good deal to criticism during the two decades. Prof. Hajini's 'Kashre Nasrech
Kitab' and 'Maqualaat' contain some articles on this subject, while Prof. Kaul's
'Studies in Kashmiri' is the finest work on the literary criticism written in
English till now.
Drama
Drama in Kashmiri had touched a high pitch in Sultan Zain-ul-Aabideen's time
(1420-70) when Bhodah Bhatta wrote his Zaina Villasa, and when the stage-plays
enjoyed royal patronage. The contemporary historian, Srivara, reports in his
Zaintarangni that an actress singer could depict 49 emotions in her dancing as
harmoniously as the musical cadence demanded. Sultan Hassan Shah surpassed all
his predecessors in synthesizing the local fine arts with those of the Iranian
and Indian prototypes. Drama, as a distinct branch of literature, though mostly
preserved in verbal transmission, continued flourishing till the fall of Chak
dynasty in 1586 A.D. With the advent of foreign rule, decline in all forms of
Kashmiri literature was quite an expected misfortune; consequently the folk
taste had to survive through the professional bards, who in their turn reduced
the stage drama to a clumsy performance in the open field. The Banda-Jashan
became 'a sort of open air village folk-theatre managed by companies of
professional players or ministerels depicting social ills and
bureaucratic-tyranny, rarely alluding to some historic theme such as in Darza
Pather. This degraded practice continued till the present century, when Nand Lal
Kaul wrote Satech Kahawat (The Touch Stone of Truth) and three other less
known plays Ramun Raj (Regin of Shri Ram), Paz Pativarata (Savitri)
and Dayun Lol (Devotee's Affection). These were over-Sanskritised in
diction. After him, Tara Chand Trissal (d. 1948) wrote Premech Kahawat (1938)
and three minor plays Akanandan, Ramavtar, and Pazech Kahawat
with the same mental background as that of Nand Lal but in simpler diction till
Mohi-ud-Din Hajini, while a college student wrote in 1939 his 'Grees-Sund
Ghara' (The Peasants Home), the first three act play in Kashmiri on
Shakespearean pattern, depicting faithfully the social norms and exploiting
agents in Kashmiri. It is probably the only work in prose selling in 3 editions
within 5 years. In 1947 Kashmir became the war area, and the in the West both of
classical and modern ages. Almost all Collegs and Higher Secondary Schools have
now assigned a permanent section in their magazines for criticism of Kashmiri
literature. M. Y. Teng, Faroque Nazki, S. N. Zutshi, Saqi, Lone, Rahbar and
Khayal have also aded a good deal to criticism during the two decades. Prof.
Hajini's 'Kashre Nasrech Kitab' and 'Maqualaat' contain some articles on this
subject, while Prof. Kaul's 'Studies in Kashmiri' is the finest work on the
literary criticism written in English till now.
Drama
Drama in Kashmiri had touched a high pitch in Sultan Zain-ul-Aabideen's time
(1420-70) when Bhodah Bhatta wrote his Zaina Villasa, and when the stage-plays
enjoyed royal patronage. The contemporary historian, Srivara, reports in his
Zaintarangni that an actress singer could depict 49 emotions in her dancing as
harmoniously as the musical cadence demanded. Sultan Hassan Shah surpassed all
his predecessors in synthesizing the local fine arts with those of the Iranian
and Indian prototypes. Drama, as a distinct branch of literature, though mostly
preserved in verbal transmission, continued flourishing till the fall of Chak
dynasty in 1586 A.D. With the advent of foreign rule, decline in all forms of
Kashmiri literature was quite an expected misfortune; consequently the folk
taste had to survive through the professional bards, who in their turn reduced
the stage drama to a clumsy performance in the open field. The Banda-Jashan
became 'a sort of open air village folk-theatre managed by companies of
professional players or ministerels depicting social ills and
bureaucratic-tyranny, rarely alluding to some historic theme such as in Darza
Pather. This degraded practice continued till the present century, when Nand Lal
Kaul wrote Satech Kahawat (The Touch Stone of Truth) and three other less
known plays Ramun Raj (Regin of Shri Ram), Paz Pativarata (Savitri)
and Dayun Lol (Devotee's Affection). These were over-Sanskritised in
diction. After him, Tara Chand Trissal (d. 1948) wrote Premech Kahawat (1938)
and three minor plays Akanandan, Ramavtar, and Pazech Kahawat
with the same mental background as that of Nand Lal but in simpler diction till
Mohi-ud-Din Hajini, while a college student wrote in 1939 his 'Grees-Sund
Ghara' (The Peasants Home), the first three act play in Kashmiri on
Shakespearean pattern, depicting faithfully the social norms and exploiting
agents in Kashmiri. It is probably the only work in prose selling in 3 editions
within 5 years. In 1947 Kashmir became the war area, and the State was actually
partitioned. Kashmiri writers also fell into two camps separated by the detested
cease-fire line. The Radio Dramas in the two regions of Kashmir were first
converged on the exigencies of propaganda rather than on canons of art. 'Kune
Kath' type of plays in Kashmiri fall under this category. However, the young
playwrights asserted themselves and began writing seriously. Of the 350 old
drama features, reported by J. L. Kaul to have been broadcast by the Radio
Kashmir till the end of 1967; a sizeable number merit publication, but have not
been published. Heaven knows why? Similarly the works of playwrights living
beyond the ceasefire line (Thus Banhali, Naaz Kulgami, Ahmad Shamim, Masood
Tabassum etc. are not available in the market for assessment; hence it will be
too just to evaluate them in absence, or to adjudge the worth of such other
playwrights on the basis of skits, features, Radio Plays broadcasted now and
then on either side of the ceasefire line. D. N. Nadim's Neki ta Badi
(Good and Evil) Kamil's Habba Khatoon, Wali's Zoon, Akhtar's Naste-Hynd
Swal, are some of the first mature attempts during the fiftees. The two
operas Nadim's Bomber ta Yamberzal (1953) and Kamil's Bombur ta
Lolar (1961) are in fact the finest pieces in the form. One of our
celebrated legends Heemal Nagiray has been woven into two forms, an opera
by Roshan and Nadim, and a five act play by Pandit J. L. Jalali, the latter
coming upto the standard at least in the theme, if not in dramatic technique.
Some plays like Bhara's Supnavasudatum transalated by N.K. Sharma are yet
to be published. The Academy of Art, Culture and Languages has since 1958, been
organizing play competitions every year and awarding prizes for play writing,
production, acting and also staging the prize winning plays in the Tagore Hall. Yiti
Chhu Banan (This too happens) by M. S. Butt, 'Research' by Pushkar Bhan and
Som Nath Sadhu, Taqudeer by Mohd Subhan Bhagat, Taqudeersaaz by
Ali Mohd. Lone, Hawas by M.L.Kemu have successfully been staged in the
Hall.
There are now a number of classical dramas translated into Kashmiri under the
direction of the Sahity Akademi Delhi, Tagore's Mukta Dhara by A. M. Lone, Red
Gleanders (Wozel Gulala) Malini, Sacrifice and Chandaliker by Noor Mohd,
Roshan's Dhak Ghar and Raza-ta-Raane by M. A. Kamil, Sontuk
Abgath by Mirza Arif, Ibson's Ghost (Tsay) by Akhbar Mohy-ud-Din, and Wild
Duck (Thuj) by Somnath Zutshi. Independent attempts to translate foreign
players are also worth with the mention i.e. Shakespeare's Othello by Nadim, and
Julius Caesar by Naji Munawar, Tagore's Chitra, and Goldsmith's 'She Starts to
Conquer' by A. K. Rahbar, are, besides, some of the precious additions to our
dramatic literaure. Despite the Technical drawbacks, a number of plays staged by
the Bhagat Theatre Akingam (under the directions of M. L. Kemu), and the Hero
Machama and Waktuk Lukman by Pushkar Bhan have been presented well on
th stage. Prof. S. L., Sadhu's 'Birbal' is a historical play, the first
attempt in the form, but neither sublime in theme nor viable in style.
Though there is a long tradition in almost all higher educational
institutions to stage plays written in Urdu or Hindi and occasionally in
Kashmiri and though we have a number of playwrights engaged in writing one act
plays, skits and shadow plays, it must be admitted that 'most of these make a
contribution more than to drama' (J. L. Kalu); and that is why the numerous
plays staged by various Dramatic Clubs before 1947, remained confined to social
reform or local mythology, and could not raise the level to the artistic
standards. It in only after 1960, that we find the balance gradually turning in
favour of maturity in thought, and eloquence, freefulness and economy in
diction.
[Reproduced from, "The Literary Heritage of Kashmir," (1985)
Edited by K. L. Kalla, Mittal Publications, Delhi - 110035]. The author besides
having been a Professor is Kashmir University, has been Sahitya Academy Award
winner, (1970), for his prolific writings.
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